Here is a collection of tweets from this event.
[View the story “Moon, Mars and the Search for Life in the Universe” on Storify]
SpaceFest V! The Apollo Panel
This morning, live from Tucson, we are about to enjoy the Apollo panel, a highlight of the annual SpaceFest event.
On the panel, we have:
Walt Cunningham (Apollo 7) (WC)
Jim McDivitt (Gemini 4, Apollo 9) (JM)
Richard Gordon (Gemini 11, Apollo 12) (RG)
Fred Haise (Apollo 13) (FH)
Ed Mitchell (Apollo 14) (EM)
Prof Brian Cox (moderator) (BC)
Bruce McCandless (Capcom during Apollo, first untethered space walk) (BM)
WC: Want to thank you all for being here and giving us the
opportunity to meet up as old friends. Perhaps we can take you back to the
reality of space exploration this morning. When you look back at Apollo, Apollo
was truly man’s greatest adventure.
Prof Brian Cox (moderator) (BC)
Bruce McCandless (Capcom during Apollo, first untethered space walk) (BM)
WC: Want to thank you all for being here and giving us the
opportunity to meet up as old friends. Perhaps we can take you back to the
reality of space exploration this morning. When you look back at Apollo, Apollo
was truly man’s greatest adventure.
I like to tell the story of a Frenchman, who had an
announcement back in 1894 that he was going to swim the Atlantic. To be an adventure
you have to satify 3 conditions:
–
advance human knowledge
advance human knowledge
3 things – missed
–
LaFont swum the atlantic four years later.
LaFont swum the atlantic four years later.
Public in general pretty much think so.
We took a steady approach –5 large steps to land a man on
the moon
the moon
Today remains the longest most ambitious most successful
test flight ever of a flying vehicle.
test flight ever of a flying vehicle.
Even when we went with next step apoollo 8 overcame
psychological barrier for people in mission control, especially the flight
controllers, to send a man outside of the Earth’s gravitational field.
psychological barrier for people in mission control, especially the flight
controllers, to send a man outside of the Earth’s gravitational field.
We had to test the lunar module – all of this is to get
ready to land a man on the Moon.
ready to land a man on the Moon.
You don’t hear much of Apollo 7 or Apollo 9 any more because
they didn’t go to the Moon.
they didn’t go to the Moon.
On Apollo 10 we had a dry run of everything except the final
lunar landing – down to 40,000 feet. So Apollo 11 put all of these together,
went on and landed on the Moon. I reminded Neil once or twice, the only thing
he was doing for the first time was that last 40,000 feet. There is not a one of us that could have handled that as
well as he did.
lunar landing – down to 40,000 feet. So Apollo 11 put all of these together,
went on and landed on the Moon. I reminded Neil once or twice, the only thing
he was doing for the first time was that last 40,000 feet. There is not a one of us that could have handled that as
well as he did.
Astronauts, we got the glory. But I can tell you, we were
not responsible for the success of the Apollo program. That falls back on
operations, mission control and management. Yes, I said management. In those
days we had management willing to make critical decisions and they were not
risk averse as we are in todays society.
not responsible for the success of the Apollo program. That falls back on
operations, mission control and management. Yes, I said management. In those
days we had management willing to make critical decisions and they were not
risk averse as we are in todays society.
So I think that was the major difference. 500 years from now
there is only going to be one thing that they remember about ther 20th
century – Man landed on the Moon!
there is only going to be one thing that they remember about ther 20th
century – Man landed on the Moon!
JM: I spent a lot of time in Washington too during space
station days – one other thing, I was asked to be the shuttle program manager,
I went to Washington, talked to the administrator, and found out what they had
promised Congress. They had promised very frequent flights at very low cost. I
said theres no way that’s going to work and it didn’t. The price they gave
Congress overran by a factor of 2-3, the schedule was very late, 6-7 years.
station days – one other thing, I was asked to be the shuttle program manager,
I went to Washington, talked to the administrator, and found out what they had
promised Congress. They had promised very frequent flights at very low cost. I
said theres no way that’s going to work and it didn’t. The price they gave
Congress overran by a factor of 2-3, the schedule was very late, 6-7 years.
When space station was trying to get funded in Congress it
wasn’t going to make it, until it was suggested it became an International
Space Station. The guys in Congress who
liked space didn’t carry a big enough stick to get it funded until it became an
international effort. And that’s the world that we’re going to be in, the cost
of doing these things is going to make it very difficult to do big manned
progress. It’s a very different environment now to what it was back in the 60s.
Everyone knew what Gemini and Apollo were.
It wasn’t until Apollo 14 I realised the bloom was coming off the rose,
trying to dock with the rocket, a golf game, a baseball game and a soap opera
and I realised we weren’t as popular as we used to be.
wasn’t going to make it, until it was suggested it became an International
Space Station. The guys in Congress who
liked space didn’t carry a big enough stick to get it funded until it became an
international effort. And that’s the world that we’re going to be in, the cost
of doing these things is going to make it very difficult to do big manned
progress. It’s a very different environment now to what it was back in the 60s.
Everyone knew what Gemini and Apollo were.
It wasn’t until Apollo 14 I realised the bloom was coming off the rose,
trying to dock with the rocket, a golf game, a baseball game and a soap opera
and I realised we weren’t as popular as we used to be.
To get Congressman engaged and new money is going to be a
tough haul.
tough haul.
JM: After I left the program I had a great backup crew for
Apollo 9, who flew Apollo 12. Everything in spacecraft went off for Apollo 12
(lightning hitting. Had to decide whether we should go to the Moon or not. Best
information I had it looked like we had only lost a few insignificant things,
so I said go ahead.
Apollo 9, who flew Apollo 12. Everything in spacecraft went off for Apollo 12
(lightning hitting. Had to decide whether we should go to the Moon or not. Best
information I had it looked like we had only lost a few insignificant things,
so I said go ahead.
When I flew on Gemini 4 we couldn’t get the launch umbilical
down, when finally done two mechanics pushed circuit breakers together –
probably burned every wire that we had but its an attitude I hope we can
resurrect.
down, when finally done two mechanics pushed circuit breakers together –
probably burned every wire that we had but its an attitude I hope we can
resurrect.
BC: How did you feel when Jim launched you into a
thundercloud?
thundercloud?
RG: I just heard he didn’t know if the parachutes worked
either. We would’ve ben just as dead from Earth orbit as we would’ve been
coming back from the Moon.
He (Jim) didn’t say a darned word about Apollo 9 did he. They were several hundred miles – separated in two vehicles – didn’t have a heat
shield – they weren’t getting home unless they could rendez vous with the
command module. Was a privilege for me to serve with Jim on Apollo 9 though
Pete and I were always mad as hell with him. He was offered Apollo 8 and he
turned it down because he wanted to fly the LEM. Then we (Apollo 12) would’ve
been backup crew for Apollo 8 instead…you go and figure it out!
either. We would’ve ben just as dead from Earth orbit as we would’ve been
coming back from the Moon.
He (Jim) didn’t say a darned word about Apollo 9 did he. They were several hundred miles – separated in two vehicles – didn’t have a heat
shield – they weren’t getting home unless they could rendez vous with the
command module. Was a privilege for me to serve with Jim on Apollo 9 though
Pete and I were always mad as hell with him. He was offered Apollo 8 and he
turned it down because he wanted to fly the LEM. Then we (Apollo 12) would’ve
been backup crew for Apollo 8 instead…you go and figure it out!
[This would have made the Apollo 12 crew instead the first
men on the Moon].
men on the Moon].
It was a requirement for our flight to prove that NASA
control and crew could perform a so-called pinpointed landing. To prove that we
were given a target of Surveyor 3 which had been on the Moon almost 2 years
prior to our flight, so that was our landing site, to prove we had done that we
should bring back some of the hardware, the TV camera was of interest as it has
a multitude of different materials, the camera itself, Pete grabbed a couple of
extraneous odds and ends off it.
control and crew could perform a so-called pinpointed landing. To prove that we
were given a target of Surveyor 3 which had been on the Moon almost 2 years
prior to our flight, so that was our landing site, to prove we had done that we
should bring back some of the hardware, the TV camera was of interest as it has
a multitude of different materials, the camera itself, Pete grabbed a couple of
extraneous odds and ends off it.
But we did that, we flew 240,000 miles and landed on
the rim of a 600m diameter crater.
Provided techniques that mission control and flight crews needed for all the
other Apollo missions, to land in more exotic places on the lunar surface.
FH: Apollo 13 had the least anomalies of all missions,
except Apollo 17 overall. Of course I was very disappointed, after I knew we
had lost one tank I knew we had lost the mission effectively and I was just
sick to my stomach because here I had lost the chance. But carrying on from
what Jim said, I went back into training on Apollo 16 and envisaged somewhere I
knew I would need a second career at some stage, so went to Harvard Business
School and volunteered to work in the project office. First 3 years of the
program on shuttle we had to deal with half the monies
except Apollo 17 overall. Of course I was very disappointed, after I knew we
had lost one tank I knew we had lost the mission effectively and I was just
sick to my stomach because here I had lost the chance. But carrying on from
what Jim said, I went back into training on Apollo 16 and envisaged somewhere I
knew I would need a second career at some stage, so went to Harvard Business
School and volunteered to work in the project office. First 3 years of the
program on shuttle we had to deal with half the monies
Balancing money versus program content and trying to make
schedule as you faced changing administrations. Started under Nixon and then
President Carter came in. We took great risk, Challenger which had the problem
was suppose to be a test vehicle. We knew we weren’t going to fly enough
flights and we only took it to 80% loads to turn it into a flight vehicle.Full scale vehicles in Apollo. Vibracoustic scared me. Vibraacouistic stress was much higher on Shuttle than on Apollo, as engines so
much closer.
schedule as you faced changing administrations. Started under Nixon and then
President Carter came in. We took great risk, Challenger which had the problem
was suppose to be a test vehicle. We knew we weren’t going to fly enough
flights and we only took it to 80% loads to turn it into a flight vehicle.Full scale vehicles in Apollo. Vibracoustic scared me. Vibraacouistic stress was much higher on Shuttle than on Apollo, as engines so
much closer.
I left NASA and went to Grumman corporation. I had a
service company, and volunteered to leave it so led the engineering contract on
Space Station. We did two paper redesigns from the old Space Station Freedom.
If the House of Representatives had sihfted one vote you would have no space
station today.
service company, and volunteered to leave it so led the engineering contract on
Space Station. We did two paper redesigns from the old Space Station Freedom.
If the House of Representatives had sihfted one vote you would have no space
station today.
So its been that way and I don’t have any answers on
how to change that, how to get the support levels guaranteed that we had in
Apollo, but we’ve really had nothing since then, and I feel sorry if I were in
Charlie Bolden’s shoes today, trying t balance what he’s having to balance and
being pulled in different directions without enough money. Its hard to get a
major program established and to be funded to go and execute it properly,
certainly in the near future.
EM: By Apollo 14 most of the kinks had been worked out of
the hardware, so it was a case of what were we going to do. We landed in the
Highlands successfully, we had a couple of small problems but the machinery
worked as it was suppose to. Apollo 9 got to test it, we got on the crew cycle and so
Alan Shepherd and I got to work together, he and I got along very well.
the hardware, so it was a case of what were we going to do. We landed in the
Highlands successfully, we had a couple of small problems but the machinery
worked as it was suppose to. Apollo 9 got to test it, we got on the crew cycle and so
Alan Shepherd and I got to work together, he and I got along very well.
2nd EVA getting samples along the way, we brought
back 95lbs of materials for geologists to take a look at when we got back. We
just had to go land on the Moon and collect data, that was by all measures that
was a piece of cake. By our time Apollo 14, 15, 16 and 17 that machinery worked
pretty good so we were able to do the science on the Moon that we set out to do
in the first place.
back 95lbs of materials for geologists to take a look at when we got back. We
just had to go land on the Moon and collect data, that was by all measures that
was a piece of cake. By our time Apollo 14, 15, 16 and 17 that machinery worked
pretty good so we were able to do the science on the Moon that we set out to do
in the first place.
BC: Along with Fred, you got experience of both programs,
you might like to comment on the differences between those.
you might like to comment on the differences between those.
BM: First observation I’d like to make is Apollo 7 and
Walt’s activities. This was the first manned spacecraft to carry a television
camera. They got it to work, beamed down some imagery, and more importantly
blazed the path enabling us to use the same path on Apollo 8 to record the now
iconic images of Earth rise from lunar orbit on , and the imagery of Armstrong
coming down the ladder on Apollo 11 and things like that. Apollo 7 was the
first to use it and they did a super job.
Walt’s activities. This was the first manned spacecraft to carry a television
camera. They got it to work, beamed down some imagery, and more importantly
blazed the path enabling us to use the same path on Apollo 8 to record the now
iconic images of Earth rise from lunar orbit on , and the imagery of Armstrong
coming down the ladder on Apollo 11 and things like that. Apollo 7 was the
first to use it and they did a super job.
WC: “I got an Emmy!”
BM: I got a couple of flights in the shuttle program. I was
standing on the ground when Apollo 12 lifted off, it was an overcast day.
Picture perfect lift off, the Saturn 5 disappeared into the clouds, and a
voluminous glow could be seen from the exhaust and engines in the clouds, but
then you had this lightning strike. It really wasn’t a thunderstorm, may have
been an electrodynamic effect from the charged particles of plasma of engine
exhaust, literally discharging into the clouds, perhaps a self-induced
lightning strike. The effect was, the command module lost all power and Pete
Conrad could legitimately have aborted the mission and came back.
standing on the ground when Apollo 12 lifted off, it was an overcast day.
Picture perfect lift off, the Saturn 5 disappeared into the clouds, and a
voluminous glow could be seen from the exhaust and engines in the clouds, but
then you had this lightning strike. It really wasn’t a thunderstorm, may have
been an electrodynamic effect from the charged particles of plasma of engine
exhaust, literally discharging into the clouds, perhaps a self-induced
lightning strike. The effect was, the command module lost all power and Pete
Conrad could legitimately have aborted the mission and came back.
RG: “I would’ve killed him”.
BM: Pete said “Well, it felt alright to me”. And they went
on, very successfully, and Dick after getting into orbit saw Orion, we can line
up the platform and go. One of the things to bear in mind was the Saturn 5 was
the first vehicle with significant redundancy. In the instrument unit there
were 2 computer control units, so when the lightning struck, the A side went
offline and switched automatically to the B side and kept right on flight which
is really amazing testimony to the redundant system.
on, very successfully, and Dick after getting into orbit saw Orion, we can line
up the platform and go. One of the things to bear in mind was the Saturn 5 was
the first vehicle with significant redundancy. In the instrument unit there
were 2 computer control units, so when the lightning struck, the A side went
offline and switched automatically to the B side and kept right on flight which
is really amazing testimony to the redundant system.
For one of the missions, it turned out they were 1500 feet
long, downrange, we had no idea what this was. Turned out the cause of this
discrepancy was that the interior of the Moon was not uniform, “lumpy pudding”
model of the mass, so there was a big scramble between Apollo 10 and Apollo 12
to enable the pinpointed landing.
long, downrange, we had no idea what this was. Turned out the cause of this
discrepancy was that the interior of the Moon was not uniform, “lumpy pudding”
model of the mass, so there was a big scramble between Apollo 10 and Apollo 12
to enable the pinpointed landing.
Quite honestly, the folks in mission control and otherwise
supporting were getting worn down. We slipped Apollo 10 by two months and told
everyone to take a break.
supporting were getting worn down. We slipped Apollo 10 by two months and told
everyone to take a break.
NASA was a young organisation.
The difference between Apollo and shuttle: Shuttle was a
significant machine but also more fragile. Had to worry about landing weather,
visibility, wind, runway availability at locations, whereas in the Apollo
situation you could come down on parachutes through some pretty bad weather if
necessary and there was a carrier deployed wherever you might have come down.
But there was also a different philosophy and crew division – in the Shuttle it
was deemed that the commander was indispensable for landing, so spacewalks etc
were carried out by dispensible astronauts, ie mission specialists. Whereas in
Apollo days anyone and everyone could do a spacewalk.
One of the things you have to do, we were not allowed ot
modernise Kennedy, so we did not have the automated capabilities we have today.
We had to use people in suits turning valves out at the launch pad to fill up
systems which is hazardous duty, whereas normally apart from maintenance you
would not use people, you would automate all of that. We had to replace a
filter, the guy who built it was no longer around, so we had to re-engineer to
re-invent the filter to go and replace it out at the launch pad.
Even the ground systems, the things you have to reduce
significantly for costs on any system is payroll, way too many people. We have
to do a lot more automated in any launch system. We should have made Shuttle
more efficient. Lockheed saved their bacon when we chopped 25% out of the wings
for weight. A lot of people involved on replacing and checking tiles. We were
frought with multi-requirements from Air Force, science community, from the
original idea it would just be a simple vehicle. They drove us in weight,
things in systems, 600lbs to satisfy security for AirForce. If you allow the
vehicle to be a so called ‘simple truck’ to reduce costs, we could have got to
a more viable less expensive system if we had been able to evolve through several
different systems.
significant machine but also more fragile. Had to worry about landing weather,
visibility, wind, runway availability at locations, whereas in the Apollo
situation you could come down on parachutes through some pretty bad weather if
necessary and there was a carrier deployed wherever you might have come down.
But there was also a different philosophy and crew division – in the Shuttle it
was deemed that the commander was indispensable for landing, so spacewalks etc
were carried out by dispensible astronauts, ie mission specialists. Whereas in
Apollo days anyone and everyone could do a spacewalk.
BC: How similar was Apollo program to flight testing of
other vehicles?
other vehicles?
EM: We told companies of problems, they fixed it. We tried
to make sure things worked, they fixed it.
to make sure things worked, they fixed it.
WC: The actual operation of the spacecraft was something you
could pretty well simulate on the ground, even with old fashioned computers we
had in those days. The real job was creating the vehicle, getting it there. I
always felt the two week flight we had was almost a relief/vacation from the
training we had done for five years. Different when you are flying a vehicle
that has already been developed. One year I was on the road I think 275 days
back in the 60s, that was all to get the vehicle down there and we were
dedicated. Every single engineer we ran into was dedicated too. They knew and
believe and felt that if that thing was going to fail, it wouldn’t be because
of them. Several hundred thousand people all had that same attitude.
could pretty well simulate on the ground, even with old fashioned computers we
had in those days. The real job was creating the vehicle, getting it there. I
always felt the two week flight we had was almost a relief/vacation from the
training we had done for five years. Different when you are flying a vehicle
that has already been developed. One year I was on the road I think 275 days
back in the 60s, that was all to get the vehicle down there and we were
dedicated. Every single engineer we ran into was dedicated too. They knew and
believe and felt that if that thing was going to fail, it wouldn’t be because
of them. Several hundred thousand people all had that same attitude.
I loved getting a break after a day at the plant, hop in my
T38 and go back home. The real job was getting ready for the launch.
T38 and go back home. The real job was getting ready for the launch.
BC: Fred, you mentioned to me yesterday one of the
challenges on Apollo 13 for you was to re-learn to fly the LEM with a slightly
different centre of mass due to the fact there was a command module attached to
it.
challenges on Apollo 13 for you was to re-learn to fly the LEM with a slightly
different centre of mass due to the fact there was a command module attached to
it.
FH: We re-utilised the LEM and had practiced several abort
modes for if a command module failed, we practiced those in training. There was
a hurry up activation check list to do that quickly to power up the LEM enough
to do a quick burn and controlling it the same way. Jim exaggerates sometimes
it was so hard to control. Our big problem on our flight was we didn’t have an
8-ball horizon to use and that made it quite difficult. But we had trained to
fly it that way, the movie exaggerated greatly the corrections with Earth
flying up and down through the window. If we had not touched anything and done
the burn I think it would’ve only moved 5 degrees. Biggest error on any axis
was 0.9 degrees, and that was Lovell’s by the way.
modes for if a command module failed, we practiced those in training. There was
a hurry up activation check list to do that quickly to power up the LEM enough
to do a quick burn and controlling it the same way. Jim exaggerates sometimes
it was so hard to control. Our big problem on our flight was we didn’t have an
8-ball horizon to use and that made it quite difficult. But we had trained to
fly it that way, the movie exaggerated greatly the corrections with Earth
flying up and down through the window. If we had not touched anything and done
the burn I think it would’ve only moved 5 degrees. Biggest error on any axis
was 0.9 degrees, and that was Lovell’s by the way.
JM: On Apollo 9 I did a lot of the tests that Fred referred
to, so I had a lot of confidence the guys could do what they needed to do. The
flight was not on a free return trajectory.
to, so I had a lot of confidence the guys could do what they needed to do. The
flight was not on a free return trajectory.
People ask me what was the most important flight ever? I say
Apollo 13 hands down. When people ask about the movie they show a Grumman guy
being interviewed by a flight director. The Grumman guys didn’t report to
flight director, they reported to me and they were extremely helpful throughout
the flight.
Apollo 13 hands down. When people ask about the movie they show a Grumman guy
being interviewed by a flight director. The Grumman guys didn’t report to
flight director, they reported to me and they were extremely helpful throughout
the flight.
FH: I tell you, when I joined Grumman I heard that a lot.
WC: I can tell you that our attitude was both good and
bad over the history of the Apollo program. When the Apollo 1 fire happened,
there were so many things wrong with that spacecraft, and we were aware of a
lot of them, but we were over-confident, thought we could compensate for
things. But the vehicle was not as good as it should’ve been. They always assessed
changes assessed on costs, weight and schedule impacts. After they had the fire
and they started fixing everything, there were more than 1000 changes made after
Apollo 1, and the vehicle that we flew was near perfect. I think our attitude
that contributed to having that fire. When it came to Apollo 13 I was across
the street, Jack Swigert was pilot there, we had worked for months on
malfunction procedures. When the calls came into Mission control I listened for
15 mins, MC were doing all they could to prepare. I listened for 15 minutes and
went home and went to sleep because I went home knowing they had done
everything they could possibly do at that stage.
Q: Would you have been sacked if you said you would not fly
the spacecraft as it wasn’t safe.
the spacecraft as it wasn’t safe.
WC: It wasn’t a bad spacecraft, it just wasn’t at the level
that we wanted it to be. Gus and Wally Schirra were aware of it but we didn’t
consider it so bad that we couldn’t handle the problems. They were already
implementing some of those things on the block 2 spacecraft. We had been
working on a better hatch for months and months and problems with costs etc.
But we basically felt that we could have handled it, I don’t think anyone
thought they couldn’t handle the block 1 spacecraft.
that we wanted it to be. Gus and Wally Schirra were aware of it but we didn’t
consider it so bad that we couldn’t handle the problems. They were already
implementing some of those things on the block 2 spacecraft. We had been
working on a better hatch for months and months and problems with costs etc.
But we basically felt that we could have handled it, I don’t think anyone
thought they couldn’t handle the block 1 spacecraft.
JM: I was backup crew until just before the fire. The
problem was we had a fire problem. We had had this problem right through
Mercury and Gemini into Apollo and we didn’t really appreciate that the
spacecraft had such pressurised oxygen that if you lit a cigarette that it
would light up on fire. We really didn’t face up to the fire problem until
after Apollo 1. Then we flew with nothing flammable in the spacecraft – even personal
effects were encased in an unflammable material.
FH: They did a better job with sealing which I think saved
some of us. Spacecraft got very damp, we had to wipe off everything as it got
covered in water. The fact they had medically sealed that stuff kept us from
probably having some sort of a short – and a problem at that point when we were
getting ready to power back up. We did 6 circuit breakers, then tried to see if
we could smell anything, then another 6.
some of us. Spacecraft got very damp, we had to wipe off everything as it got
covered in water. The fact they had medically sealed that stuff kept us from
probably having some sort of a short – and a problem at that point when we were
getting ready to power back up. We did 6 circuit breakers, then tried to see if
we could smell anything, then another 6.
JM: When we flew Gemini 4 they wanted us to keep the
helmets on with faceplates closed for 4 days so we wouldn’t breathe moisture
into the cabin as they were worried about whether things were sealed
Q: What is your advice for young people for the future?
JM: I think manned spaceflight has peaked. I think its
difficult to sent people to Mars when you can send robots to do the job. If I
was going to be a program manager again I would stick with robotics. When we
were on the Moon we could only go so far from the lunar module and had to go
back. We could put a rover in a straight line and go 100 miles not just a short
distance.
difficult to sent people to Mars when you can send robots to do the job. If I
was going to be a program manager again I would stick with robotics. When we
were on the Moon we could only go so far from the lunar module and had to go
back. We could put a rover in a straight line and go 100 miles not just a short
distance.
One time we were trying to increase the payload on the
shuttle, the obvious thing to do is take the crew out. I think we’re going to
see more and more unmanned. If you look at the military today more and more
vehicles are unmanned.
shuttle, the obvious thing to do is take the crew out. I think we’re going to
see more and more unmanned. If you look at the military today more and more
vehicles are unmanned.
I think that’s the way the world’s going. I think we were
just born at the right time to participate in manned spaceflight.
just born at the right time to participate in manned spaceflight.
WC: Especially for young people going to school today, we
live in a different society, different kind of culture, I’d like to see those
people willing to separate themselves for example we live in a risk-averse
culture. My advice is you don’t have to believe everything you are told – go find
out yourself. People will tell you what
they think they know but many times its politically driven – get away from
risk-averse society. You need to take risk and different chances at different levels.
I really am dead against the non-sceptical risk-averse society we’re developing
today.
live in a different society, different kind of culture, I’d like to see those
people willing to separate themselves for example we live in a risk-averse
culture. My advice is you don’t have to believe everything you are told – go find
out yourself. People will tell you what
they think they know but many times its politically driven – get away from
risk-averse society. You need to take risk and different chances at different levels.
I really am dead against the non-sceptical risk-averse society we’re developing
today.
RG: Let your children take risks, be good parents and teach
your children how to pray.
your children how to pray.
>EM: I’d like to add to the remarks in a slightly
different vein. The future is going to be quite different to what it is right
now. We are overpopulating the planet, running out of resources, we are going
to have to look to space and other planets and other ways to keep this going.
The space effort and going to Mars and perhaps eventually beyond our solar
system that’s what its got to be about. I think the best testament for it now
is that we’re going to have trouble in this century keeping things going well.
Lets be bold, we’re in a very small solar system, that has right now endangered
since beginning of 20th century, consumption is totally out of hand,
we have some serious problems. Perhaps continuing to go into space and develop
tools is one of the ways out of this. I suggest we look at this.
BM: You don’t need to repeat, re-invent the wheel. You need
to stand on our shoulders and go and do something bigger and better. The
programs are changing but spaceflight is transitioning into a two pronged
phase, a commercial effort, which must have been like aviation in the 1920s as
entrepreneurial and private endeavours were progressing.
to stand on our shoulders and go and do something bigger and better. The
programs are changing but spaceflight is transitioning into a two pronged
phase, a commercial effort, which must have been like aviation in the 1920s as
entrepreneurial and private endeavours were progressing.
We will be continuing exploration beyond Earth orbit
depending on numerous factors, it may be all US or it may be international
collaboration or maybe a mixture of the two. My advice would be to try to think
what things will be like by the time you individually are in your late 20s or
early 30s and pursue early job assignments to make you the best qualified for
whatever interests you. Then find something that interests you and go for it.
JM: Theres a lot of opportunities for people to deal with
the space business but I think the number of human beings flying is going to be
significantly less.
the space business but I think the number of human beings flying is going to be
significantly less.
BC: Going back to Jim’s comments, its cheaper and easier to explore the Solar system with robotic
program, but what advantages do you think the manned program has beyond the
scientific, the idea you have a well managed and well focussed program. I don’t
think many people would argue that Apollo had value beyond the scientific?
program, but what advantages do you think the manned program has beyond the
scientific, the idea you have a well managed and well focussed program. I don’t
think many people would argue that Apollo had value beyond the scientific?
WC: I’d rather explore Mars with people. In order to get to
Mars there are all kinds of problems we have to solve which we would need
hundreds of thousands of people working on it. The technology that rolled out
of Apollo and into industry helped for 30 years after Apollo. Same thing is
true when you tackle something that is considered impossible. Not even knowing the value that 20, 30, 50
years afterwards is the real return – that’s why I want to go to Mars, even if
we don’t find a thing there, I don’t care about mining etc. I just think the
technology you would need to do it will benefit all of us.
Mars there are all kinds of problems we have to solve which we would need
hundreds of thousands of people working on it. The technology that rolled out
of Apollo and into industry helped for 30 years after Apollo. Same thing is
true when you tackle something that is considered impossible. Not even knowing the value that 20, 30, 50
years afterwards is the real return – that’s why I want to go to Mars, even if
we don’t find a thing there, I don’t care about mining etc. I just think the
technology you would need to do it will benefit all of us.
BC: Going to Mars looks very difficult for many reasons. How
difficult did it look to go to the Moon back in the early 60s – did it look
similarly impossible?
difficult did it look to go to the Moon back in the early 60s – did it look
similarly impossible?
EM: Going to the Moon was difficult, we needed new
technologies, same thing as going to Mars. We’re already thinking about it with
technology with unmanned vehicles. So its just a progressive development, one
more step.
technologies, same thing as going to Mars. We’re already thinking about it with
technology with unmanned vehicles. So its just a progressive development, one
more step.
WC: If someone had told me in the 1950s that it was
possible to go to the Moon it would have been laughed as ridiculous. But if I
were to tell anyone in the audience they could go to Mars it’s a lot more
sensible than it was in the 50s talking about going to the Moon.
Q: Makes me sick we’re paying Russians to take us to ISS –
$70m to get a guy up there.
$70m to get a guy up there.
WC: Believe me it is going to cost us more than $70mn, even
if we were still flying Shuttle. Don’t get me wrong, I think the biggest
mistake NASA ever made was cancelling the Shuttle, especially without some kind
of replacement. It cost us more per person. But the Russians are so far removed
from having technology to build something like Shuttle is unbelievable.
if we were still flying Shuttle. Don’t get me wrong, I think the biggest
mistake NASA ever made was cancelling the Shuttle, especially without some kind
of replacement. It cost us more per person. But the Russians are so far removed
from having technology to build something like Shuttle is unbelievable.
FH: I worked 4 years at the Cape turning around the Space
Shuttle. So I got more into back rooms of operations than most people did. Take
the F-86, one of my favourite airplanes. The A-model flew in Korean war against
MIGS, by the time we finished making them we were up to the H-model, I guess
the best of the group.
Shuttle. So I got more into back rooms of operations than most people did. Take
the F-86, one of my favourite airplanes. The A-model flew in Korean war against
MIGS, by the time we finished making them we were up to the H-model, I guess
the best of the group.
One of the things you have to do, we were not allowed ot
modernise Kennedy, so we did not have the automated capabilities we have today.
We had to use people in suits turning valves out at the launch pad to fill up
systems which is hazardous duty, whereas normally apart from maintenance you
would not use people, you would automate all of that. We had to replace a
filter, the guy who built it was no longer around, so we had to re-engineer to
re-invent the filter to go and replace it out at the launch pad.
Even the ground systems, the things you have to reduce
significantly for costs on any system is payroll, way too many people. We have
to do a lot more automated in any launch system. We should have made Shuttle
more efficient. Lockheed saved their bacon when we chopped 25% out of the wings
for weight. A lot of people involved on replacing and checking tiles. We were
frought with multi-requirements from Air Force, science community, from the
original idea it would just be a simple vehicle. They drove us in weight,
things in systems, 600lbs to satisfy security for AirForce. If you allow the
vehicle to be a so called ‘simple truck’ to reduce costs, we could have got to
a more viable less expensive system if we had been able to evolve through several
different systems.
WC: Remove high cost items on Shuttle. In the end we are
going to continue to fly outside of Earth orbit, those vehicles will be put
together in orbit in pieces, and be ferried up and back by re-usable launch
vehicles.
going to continue to fly outside of Earth orbit, those vehicles will be put
together in orbit in pieces, and be ferried up and back by re-usable launch
vehicles.
BC: 10 minutes left. Any questions from the younger members
of the audience?
of the audience?
Q: In your opinion, what was the hardest part of the Apollo
mission?
mission?
Q: (To EM) Your book quotes that the most profound part of
the mission for you was coming home.
the mission for you was coming home.
EM: Fundamental principles of whats taking place in nature.
What you’re talking about goes back into ancient literature in the 18th
century, an “aha” experience which changes the way you think about things.
What you’re talking about goes back into ancient literature in the 18th
century, an “aha” experience which changes the way you think about things.
Q: What convinced you to be astronauts?
WC: When I was growing up there was no such thing, but I can
tell you as a child the only boyhood hero I can ever remember was Charles
Lindberg, the only thing I wanted to be was a pilot, and when I was a pilot I
just wanted to be the best in my squadron, training, and I finally proved I was
better than all these guys.
tell you as a child the only boyhood hero I can ever remember was Charles
Lindberg, the only thing I wanted to be was a pilot, and when I was a pilot I
just wanted to be the best in my squadron, training, and I finally proved I was
better than all these guys.
JM: You need to study maths and science, as in space its all
maths and science. Then take advantage of opportunities when they call.
maths and science. Then take advantage of opportunities when they call.
RG: I think normal progression of a profession convinced me.
I just finished test pilot school in 1957, shortly thereafter Sputnik was
launched on 4th Oct that year, there you go, a new arena has been
opened up for humans to occupy. Going from test pilot school and peer group
you’re associated with tends to bring along with that group.
I just finished test pilot school in 1957, shortly thereafter Sputnik was
launched on 4th Oct that year, there you go, a new arena has been
opened up for humans to occupy. Going from test pilot school and peer group
you’re associated with tends to bring along with that group.
Punchline that I would present if you had 6 children where
the hell would you like to go?!
the hell would you like to go?!
WC: There was a point in my life when I decided I was going
to try to be an astronaut. May 5th 1961. Was at UCLA then working in
California. Tried to get to work early, and spent afternoon at UCLA. Was
driving across the mountains, listening to radio a little before 7am, a little
before 10am in Florida. And they were having a countdown for Al Shepherds
flight in a redstone rocket. As it got closer I just couldn’t drive any more. I
pulled over.
to try to be an astronaut. May 5th 1961. Was at UCLA then working in
California. Tried to get to work early, and spent afternoon at UCLA. Was
driving across the mountains, listening to radio a little before 7am, a little
before 10am in Florida. And they were having a countdown for Al Shepherds
flight in a redstone rocket. As it got closer I just couldn’t drive any more. I
pulled over.
JM: Well you can’t drive anyway!
WC: It got down to 3, 2, 1 liftoff, before it cleared the
tower. Then I heard ‘you lucky son of a bitch’. Then I looked round and it was
me, and decided that’s what I had to aim for.
tower. Then I heard ‘you lucky son of a bitch’. Then I looked round and it was
me, and decided that’s what I had to aim for.
FH: NASA’s new deal, that’s where the money was going, it
was another test program so that’s how I followed the path and got into the
program.
was another test program so that’s how I followed the path and got into the
program.
EM: Oct 4th 1957 when Sputnik went up I realised
a new path of development had opened up and when that happened I was ready to
go for it – I pursued it from that point on.
a new path of development had opened up and when that happened I was ready to
go for it – I pursued it from that point on.
BM: At the time the family wisdom was although human beings
might eventually fly in space it wouldn’t be before the year 2000 so why don’t
you settle down and do something useful? I wound up in naval academy, commited
to new submarines, when one fall in my senior year the Russians were so
impolite as to launch Sputnik 1. I had a shortwave radio in my room, dangled a
wire out the 4th floor window and we were available to directly
receive Sputnik coming by. At that point I realised the Space Age was upon us
so I went down a few weeks later and bluffed my way through the physical exam
for flight training. Was eating my heart out when I saw the DYNOSAUR program
and realised I was too late for that, but the first opportunity to apply I put
in my application and lo and behold I got selected.
might eventually fly in space it wouldn’t be before the year 2000 so why don’t
you settle down and do something useful? I wound up in naval academy, commited
to new submarines, when one fall in my senior year the Russians were so
impolite as to launch Sputnik 1. I had a shortwave radio in my room, dangled a
wire out the 4th floor window and we were available to directly
receive Sputnik coming by. At that point I realised the Space Age was upon us
so I went down a few weeks later and bluffed my way through the physical exam
for flight training. Was eating my heart out when I saw the DYNOSAUR program
and realised I was too late for that, but the first opportunity to apply I put
in my application and lo and behold I got selected.
BC: I realise I wish you guys were still running NASA! Thank you for this morning, one of the most worthwhile 90 minutes of my life.
Tim Peake assigned to the ISS in 2015!
Reception to celebrate ESA astronaut Tim Peake on behalf of the UK Space Agency at the Houses of Parliament
I was excited to receive an invitation three days in advance of this reception on Monday 20th May and wondered with intrigue as to what the “ESA Astronaut announcement” would be. I leapt out of bed on the Sunday morning when the news broke on Twitter that Tim had been assigned to a five month mission in 2015, as by my previous calculations and hearsay on various forums, I had thought 2016 was the earliest he could hope for. A few hours later I had verified the content of the embargoed press release – Tim really was assigned to the November 2015 launch!
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| Thomas Reiter, David Willetts, Tim Peake and David Parker © Max Alexander 2013 Max Alexander/UK Space Agency |
I was unfortunately unable to attend the press conference on Monday morning at the Science Museum, where Thomas Reiter (Director of Human Spaceflight at the European Space Agency), David Willetts (Minister for Universities and Science) and David Parker (Head of the UK Space Agency) made the announcement that British astronaut Tim Peake was to fly a long duration five month mission to the International Space Station, launching on a Soyuz rocket from Baikonaur in November 2015.
We were delighted to join the event at the House of Commons, with Maggie Lieu, Richard Painter, Alex Dawn and Tom Nordheim of UKSEDS and myself and Abigail Calzada Diaz of SGAC in attendance.
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| Alex Dawn, Alistair Scott, David Willetts, Maggie Lieu, Jane MacArthur |
It was great to be able to congratulate Tim Peake in person after this momentous announcement and for us to keep a connection with him, after meeting him at the Farnborough International Airshow last year, and at his Space Boffins podcast and British Interplanetary Society talk earlier this year. Tim commented on his Twitter following being around 4,000 last week, 7,000 when he got off the plane during the weekend of the leaked announcement and 11,000 after the resulting media frenzy surrounding the press conference.
Tim will be relocating to Houston for training with his crewmates, and despite several years of training already, there is still more to learn, particularly with grappling the SpaceX Dragon during docking to the ISS and possibly Orbital Science’s Cygnus by 2015. It is too far ahead to have any idea as to whether he may do an EVA while on station, but all astronauts remain trained and prepared for this eventuality.
BIS President Alistair Scott looks forward to Tim Peake being the first BIS member in space!
Our posters at EGU!
Our first poster on Wednesday evening was from the Mars Analogue mission run in Morocco by the Austrian Space Forum. Ania Losiak had masterminded a mapping process for our science team which underpinned all the planning for the mission and became our main database of experimental results, as well as being an experiment in itself that we can compare what was planned to what actually happened, which we hope to be able to improve in future analogue missions.
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| Ania Losiak, our poster and me |
Note the toffees stuck to our display board, to encourage people to view
our poster – Ania is an expert at how to attract an audience
(considering there are over 8000 posters displayed during the week)!
On Thursday evening it was time for our post-Alpbach workshop poster, showing our improved Uranus mission and detailed trade study. My team mate Andrea also had her own poster 3 floors away and across the building, so it was convenient for me to present the post-Alpbach poster.
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| Me, Andrea Maier and Michaela Gitsch, the Alpbach Summer School Director |
After the full day at EGU I went to the European Space Policy Institute for evening talks and a reception, where I met a number of people from SGAC.
Friday evening was “Yuri’s Night”, a celebration of Yuri Gagarin’s first spaceflight 52 years earlier, where I was delighted to be reunited with many members of the Austrian Space Forum from the Mars 2013 mission.
Liquid water on Mars today?
Diedrich Moehlmann, DLR, set out to convince us that liquid
water can and does temporarily exist between two surfaces such as two grains of
rock in the upper surface of Mars today and to indicate where it may be found.
The puzzle for astrobiologists is that they know liquid water must have been plentiful in the past on Mars, but at present times we
have only confirmed water ice and atmospheric water vapour. Water vapour can
reach saturation in the current atmosphere of Mars, which makes it favourable
for it to be bound to a surface. The Mars Phoenix lander found direct
indication for liquid droplets on Mars.
have only confirmed water ice and atmospheric water vapour. Water vapour can
reach saturation in the current atmosphere of Mars, which makes it favourable
for it to be bound to a surface. The Mars Phoenix lander found direct
indication for liquid droplets on Mars.
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Water in the upper surface of present Mars, shown by hydrogen enriched
soil which is indicated by deep blue in this false-colour map of Mars
Credit: NASA/Feldman (Neutron spectrometer, Mars Odyssey) |
Moehlmann introduced the concept of ‘deliquescence’ – a
process that temporarily liquefies salts by uptake of atmospheric water.
Deliquescence is a key process to repetitively form liquid brines on present
Mars, as it can operate at remarkably low relative humidity. Iinner walls of
cracks could be temporarily covered, and narrow tips filled, by liquid
interfacial water.
He hypothesised that liquid brines in such cracks could form
capillary networks, which would be protected habitats in the porous surface of
Mars. Some recent flow-like events seen from features such as gullies on Mars
may have been caused by growth of such a subsurface capillary network, with a
sudden release of temporary liquid brines. These networks could be a possible
environment that may be favourable to support life processes.
capillary networks, which would be protected habitats in the porous surface of
Mars. Some recent flow-like events seen from features such as gullies on Mars
may have been caused by growth of such a subsurface capillary network, with a
sudden release of temporary liquid brines. These networks could be a possible
environment that may be favourable to support life processes.
Click here for the full abstract of his presentation at EGU 2013.
Monday at EGU
Monday morning saw huge advance queues eagerly awaiting the 8am registration opening. Planetary sessions started about Mercury, though notably the first speaker had withdrawn to the new NASA policy of no conference travel expenses following sequestration. This is to be a theme of the conference, though in some cases other co-authors have managed to step in on behalf of absent colleagues.
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| John Grotzinger, Sushil Atreya, Sylvestre Maurice, Javier Gómez-Elvira, Igor Mitrofanov |
The much anticipated event of the day was the MSL Curiosity press conference at 11am, with John Grotzinger and colleagues delivering the latest discoveries from this amazing mobile laboratory on Mars.
The results were neatly summarised by Jonathan Amos for the BBC, while some of the more detailed graphs and information are on the JPL website. For further details on the speakers and the full recorded press conference stream, click here.
The afternoon continued with a 90 minute session of more detailed updates from MSL, standing room only in one of the largest conference rooms due to its popularity. This was also streamed online and can be found here. The other half of the MSL update session is on Wednesday morning, streaming from 10:30 (CEST) on the same page.
Professor Tilman Spohn gave the Runcorn-Florensky Medal lecture, exploring the thermal history of planetary objects: “From Asteroids to super-Earths, from plate-tectonics to life”.
EGU General Assembly 2013
The European Geosciences Union General Assembly takes place from 7-13th April 2013. Over 11,000 attendees are registered at this largest meeting for geoscientists in Europe, I’m honoured to have my blog featured on their official blog roll.
I look forward to covering the Mars and lunar session, starting with the MSL press conference this morning at 11am (CET) together with a smattering of volcanology and geology over the week.
If you are here, don’t forget to download the EGU app, which makes it much easier to browse the mammoth programme and flag up what you want to attend, as well as having a dedicated inbuilt Twitter feed tracking the hashtag #EGU2013.
If you want to take a breather at some point, I can highly recommend the Natural History Museum. Show your EGU2013 pass to get a discount (5 euro entry fee) and don’t miss room five with the 900kg meteorite – see my next blog post! Amazing collection of meteorites including Mars and lunar samples.
Meteorites at the Natural History Museum, Vienna
The Natural History Museum boasts the oldest meteorite collection in the world, with the first two pieces entering the collection in 1778. It pre-dates the study of meteoritics and is one of the largest collections.
This 300kg meteorite Knyahinya, greets you as you enter the room, from a witnessed fall in 1866 in the Ukraine Carpathians. For a long time this frgament was the largest known stony meteorite.
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| Knyahinya |
Fantastic informational displays and interactive “is this a meteorite?” stands keep it interesting for the family, for example with a magnifier you can move along over a whole range of different types of meteorite with the corresponding information appearing on screen as you move it.
Pieces of the Moon
The first of these, a breccia, was found in Oman, while the others are the main mass and slice of a meteorite Dar al Gani found in Libya. The central piece is one of the largest ever found at 400g, from the lunar highlands.
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This piece of the Moon below, brought back from the Apollo 17 mission, was one of the samples given out by the USA government to each country, as a symbol of unity of human endeavour.
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| (Click the picture for full size to read) |
Pieces of Mars
These Martian meteorites (below) were a real highlight for me. With less than 100 known Martian meteorites out of all the many thousand now found they are a rarity offering real insights into the planet.
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Martian Meteorites under a microscope
Crystals of iron-magnesium silicate olivine can be seen in Chassigny while brownish pyroxene and colorless plagioclase feldspar can be seen in Shergotty:
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Chassigny |
Shergotty |
Carbonaceous Chondrites
These contain carbonaceous inclusions, the small white spots, which were the first solids to condense in the solar nebula, making them among the most primitive meteorites known.
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Fossil meteorites
I was interested to learn about fossil meteorites from these two specimens which landed on the sea floor and were embedded in sediment. With time, this formed hard limestone, the sea withdrew and they have been recovered from the Thorsberg quarry in southern Sweden where more than 100 specimens have been found, almost all the ones found to date are from this site. The shape remains intact, but most of the meteoritic material has been replaced by other materials, apart from a few tiny crystals of chromite.
Other meteorites
You can’t ignore the largest piece in
the Austrian collection, this 909kg iron meteorite, from the Youndegin
fall in Western Australia, found in 1884, though apparently a 2625kg
meteorite was later discovered and also attributed to this fall.
This beautiful pallasite, “Eagle Station” was found in 1880 in Kentucky,
USA, weighing 7.8kg. You can see the beautiful olivine inclusions
within the main iron-nickel body.
USA, weighing 7.8kg. You can see the beautiful olivine inclusions
within the main iron-nickel body.
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| Eagle Station |
This is of course just one room of the huge museum, well worth making time if you are ever in Vienna!
Big Bang Fair! – London Excel
The national Big Bang Fair at the London Excel Centre lasts 4 days, in UK Science and Engineering week, and has over 70,000 visitors attend the four day event. I was helping visitors identify meteorites from Earth rocks and investigate crater sizes by practical demonstrations on the UKSEDS stand, while also doing some shifts with the Kennedy Space Centre stand, where they had air-rockets which could be launched to the ceiling, with safety strings keeping them in place.
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We met Dallas Campbell, star of Supersized Earth and other documentaries including a particularly great programme about the Voyager spacecraft, as well as shuttle astronaut Jon McBride, who flew as pilot on Challenger for mission STS-41-G back in 1984. He was very gracious about signing autographs for the long lines of young people, excited to meet an astronaut.
“Characterising Exoplanets”, Royal Society
The Royal Society held a two day discussion meeting on “Characterising exoplanets: detection, formation, interiors, atmospheres and habitability” on 11-12 March 2013. I was only able to attend the end of the second day, though luckily this included two of the speakers I most wanted to hear. Having recently enjoyed Professor Charles Cockell’s astrobiology online Coursera course, I was delighted to meet him briefly afterwards.
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| Professor Charles Cockell |
Dr Ignas Snellen from Leiden University mourned the fact that with the Terrestrial Planet Finder and Darwin missions having been cancelled, it is unlikely there will be a dedicated space telescope to search for biomarker gases in exoplanet atmospheres within his lifetime. He reviewed the exciting results from ground-based telescopes and extrapolated to what may be obtained with the planned E-ELT in terms of better data in the future.
Dr Giovanna Tinetti, UCL,summarised how it is crucial to have more information about exoplanet atmospheres in order for further progress. The number of discoveries of exoplanets is increasing at a fast pace, yet with only weight, size and orbital information for about one third of them, and atmospheric temperature and compositional information for less than 20, it is not yet possible to have any detailed classification system.
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| Dr Tinetti, Dr Snellen & Prof Cockell |
For gas exoplanets, looking at chemical compositional ratios via spectroscopy such as carbon to oxygen ratio, and the amount of hydrogen escaping will give clues as to planetary formation and evolution, while albedos, thermal emissions and the day/night variation give information about the energy budget and planet-star interaction. For terrestrial planets, finding out if they have an atmosphere, and how evolved the atmosphere is will also help to answer planetary formation and evolution questions.
Some of the current issues facing exoplanets research are:
– Needing better resolution spectroscopy to improve and constrain our knowlege of exoplanet atmospheres
– Better absolute calibration between different instruments. Much continuing research is from combining data sets from different instruments but this can only give answers as good as the absolute calibration.
– Data is sparse, with not enough wavelength coverage and often not simultaneous measurements
– Very low signal to noise ratio (SNR) observations
– Stellar activity is largest source of astrophysical noise
Habitable Worlds With No Signs Of Life
Professor Charles Cockell, University of Edinburgh, started off by dividing all habitats into three:
1) Uninhabitable
2) Habitable & inhabited
3) Habitable but uninhabited: these show no surface signatures of life, perhaps a planet two young for an origin of life, or conditions too transient or inappropriate, or perhaps origin of life is very rare
60-80% of biomass on the Earth is cryptic, which means it would not show clear surface signatures although there may be hidden signatures, cryptic habitats, for example organisms living in the interior of surface rocks, in salts, in the deep subsurface or ice sheets as in the slide below.
We need to know a lot more about biotic atmospheres in order to
be able to tell them apart. Better resolution imagery and spectroscopy
will not currently be able to unequivocally determine if a world is
inhabited or not, as most habitated worlds in the cosmos will have no
remotely detectable signs of life.
Professor Cockell took the following hypothesis, saying it needs to be rejected if we are to find life: “Most habitable worlds in the cosmos will have no remotely detectable signs of life”. For this to be rejected, he suggests the following conditions:
1) When planets are habitable, the origin of life usually occurs
2) Once life originates it will usually evolve metabolisms that produce unequivocal biosignature gases which have spectral properties that clearly distinguish them from abiotic materials
3) Once organisms evolve, they will colonise a planet at high biomass
4) Once the planet is colonised, they will produce enough surface biosignatures at sufficient concentrations to be detectable to alien observers.
He suggested that currently the most reliable biosignature is oxygen at high concentration, and particularly if it is found to be in disequilibrium.
Professor Steve Miller, UCL, concluded the successful meeting with the following remarks:
“It is 21 years since Aleksander Wolszczan and Dale Frail (21/4/92) found the first exoplanet orbiting a pulsar, and 18 years
since Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz found the second exoplanet (6/10/95) orbiting a main sequence star, so however you measure it, Exoplanetology has “come
of age”!”
He summarised the meeting as having a feeling of impatience,
as more data, more missions, more instruments are wanted and needed to
satisfy the thirst for knowledge held by researchers in the exoplanet community.
Further information:
There is an EChO conference (Exoplanet Characterisation Observatory mission) being held at ESTEC, on 1-3rd July 2013.